HEALTH AND VITAMIN GLOSSARY

Abdominal

Relating to the abdomen, the belly, that part of the body that contains all of the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen is separated anatomically from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle spanning the body cavity below the lungs.

Abdominal pain

Pain in the belly (the abdomen). Abdominal pain can come from conditions affecting a variety of organs. The abdomen is an anatomical area that is bounded by the lower margin of the ribs above, the pelvic bone (pubic ramus) below, and the flanks on each side. Although abdominal pain can arise from the tissues of the abdominal wall that surround the abdominal cavity (the skin and abdominal wall muscles), the term abdominal pain generally is used to describe pain originating from organs within the abdominal cavity (from beneath the skin and muscles). These organs include the stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

Absorb

1. To take something in, as through the skin or the intestine.  2. To react with radiation and reduce it in intensity, as with a dose of radiation or transmitted light.

Absorption

Uptake. In the biomedical sciences, absorption has diverse specific meanings.

Acetate

A molecular ion derived from acetic acid. The formula of acetate is CH3COO-.

Acquired

Anything that is not present at birth but develops sometime later. In medicine, the word “acquired” implies “new” or “added.” An acquired condition is “new” in the sense that it is not genetic (inherited) and “added” in the sense that was not present at birth.

Acute

Of abrupt onset, in reference to a disease. Acute often also connotes an illness that is of short duration, rapidly progressive, and in need of urgent care.

Adipose

“Adipose” means “fat” but is usually used to refer specifically to tissue made up of mainly fat cells such as the yellow layer of fat beneath the skin.

Alcohol abuse

Use of alcoholic beverages to excess, either on individual occasions (“binge drinking”) or as a regular practice. For some individuals-children or pregnant women, for example, almost any amount of alcohol use may be legally considered “alcohol abuse,” depending on local laws. Heavy alcohol abuse can cause physical damage and death.

Alcoholism

The physical dependence on alcohol to the extent that stopping alcohol use will bring on withdrawal symptoms. In the popular and therapeutic parlance, the term may also be used to refer to ingrained drinking habits that cause health or social problems. Treatment requires first ending the physical dependence, then making lifestyle changes that help the individual avoid relapse. In some cases, medication or hospitalization are needed. Alcohol dependence can have many serious effects on the brain, liver, and other organs of the body.

Allopathy

Also known as “conventional medicine” in Western societies. Allopathy focuses on treating the symptoms of diseases primarily through prescription drugs. This approach utilizes a process of reductionism (focusing on the symptoms exhibited in a part of the organism rather than focusing on the organism as a whole.)

Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive neurologic disease of the brain that leads to the irreversible loss of neurons and dementia. The clinical hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease are progressive impairment in memory, judgment, decision making, orientation to physical surroundings, and language. A working diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease is usually made on the basis of the neurologic examination. A definitive diagnosis can be made only at autopsy. On a cellular level, Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by unusual helical protein filaments in nerve cells (neurons) of the brain. These oddly twisted filaments are called neurofibrillary tangles. On a functional level, there is degeneration of the cortical regions, especially the frontal and temporal lobes, of the brain.

Amenorrhea

Absence or cessation of menstruation. Amenorrhea is conventionally divided into primary and secondary amenorrhea.

Anemia

The condition of having less than the normal number of red blood cells or less than the normal quantity of hemoglobin in the blood. The oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is, therefore, decreased.

Anorexia

An eating disorder characterized by markedly reduced appetite or total aversion to food. Anorexia is a serious psychological disorder. It is a condition that goes well beyond out-of-control dieting. The person with anorexia, most often a girl or young woman, initially begins dieting to lose weight. Over time, the weight loss becomes a sign of mastery and control. The drive to become thinner is thought to be secondary to concerns about control and fears relating to one’s body. The individual continues the endless cycle of restrictive eating, often to a point close to starvation. This becomes an obsession and is similar to an addiction to a drug. Anorexia can be life-threatening. Also called anorexia nervosa.

Anticoagulant

Any agent used to prevent the formation of blood clots.

Anticonvulsant

A medication used to control (prevent) seizures (convulsions) or stop an ongoing series of seizures. There are a large number of anticonvulsant drugs today including, but not limited to: phenobarbital, phenytoin (Dilantin), carbamazepine, ethosuximide (Zarontin), clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan), and midazolam (Versed). Anticonvulsant drugs taken during pregnancy put the baby at risk of major birth defects — growth retardation, microcephaly (a small head), and deformities of the face and fingers — a condition known as anticonvulsant embryopathy.

Antioxidant

Any substance that reduces oxidative damage (damage due to oxygen) such as that caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that attack molecules by capturing electrons and thus modifying chemical structures.

Aromatherapy

This approach uses essential oils extracted from medicinal plants to treat various health conditions. The oils are generally diluted, then used topically, internally, or to stimulate olfactory senses.

Ascorbic acid

Vitamin C, an essential nutrient found mainly in fruits and vegetables. The body requires it to form and maintain bones, blood vessels, and skin. Like other vitamins, ascorbic acid is an organic compound. An organic compound is a substance that (1) occurs in living things, or organisms (hence, the word “organic”) and (2) contains the elements carbon and oxygen (hence, the word “compound,” meaning a combination of elements).

Atherosclerosis

A process of progressive thickening and hardening of the walls of medium-sized and large arteries as a result of fat deposits on their inner lining.

Autoimmune

Pertaining to autoimmunity, a misdirected immune response that occurs when the immune system goes awry and attacks the body itself.

Ayurvedic Medicine

Literally meaning the “science of life.” A 5,000-year-old system of medicine originating in India that combines natural therapies with a highly personalized, holistic approach to the treatment of disease.

Beriberi

A syndrome characterized by inflammation of multiple nerves (polyneuritis), heart disease (cardiopathy), and edema (swelling) due to a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet.

Beta carotene

A vitamin that acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells against oxidation damage. Beta carotene is converted by the body to vitamin A. Food sources of beta carotene include vegetables such as carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach and other leafy green vegetables; and fruit such as cantaloupes and apricots. Excessive carotene in the diet can color the skin yellow, a condition called carotenemia. Carotenemia is sometimes seen in infants fed too many mashed carrots and is a reversible condition. Beta carotene supplements have been found not to reduce the risks for cancer or heart disease.

Biliary

Having to do with the gallbladder, bile ducts, or bile. The biliary system itself consists of the gallbladder and bile ducts and, of course, the bile.

Blindness

Loss of useful sight. Blindness can be temporary or permanent. Damage to any portion of the eye, the optic nerve, or the area of the brain responsible for vision can lead to blindness. There are numerous (actually, innumerable) causes of blindness. The current politically correct terms for blindness include visually handicapped and visually challenged.

Blood clots

Blood that has been converted from a liquid to a solid-state. Also called a thrombus.

Blurred vision

Lack of sharpness of vision with, as a result, the inability to see fine detail. Blurred vision can occur when a person who wears a corrective lens is without them. Blurred vision can also be an important clue to eye disease.

Bone density

Bone density is the amount of bone tissue in a certain volume of bone. It can be measured using a special x-ray called a quantitative computed tomogram.

Bowel

Another name for the intestine. The small bowel and the large bowels are the small intestine and large intestine, respectively.

Brain

That part of the central nervous system is located within the cranium (skull). The brain functions as the primary receiver, organizer, and distributor of information for the body. It has two (right and left) halves called “hemispheres.”

Breast milk

Milk from the breast. Human milk contains a balance of nutrients that closely match infant requirements for brain development, growth, and a healthy immune system. Human milk also contains immunologic agents and other compounds that act against viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Since an infant’s immune system is not fully developed until age 2, human milk provides a distinct advantage over formula.

Calcium

A mineral found mainly in the hard part of bones, where it is stored. Calcium is added to bones by cells called osteoblasts and is removed from bones by cells called osteoclasts. Calcium is essential for healthy bones. It is also important for muscle contraction, heart action, nervous system maintenance, and normal blood clotting. Food sources of calcium include dairy foods, some leafy green vegetables such as broccoli and collards, canned salmon, clams, oysters, calcium-fortified foods, and tofu. According to the National Academy of Sciences, adequate intake of calcium is 1,200 milligrams a day (four glasses of milk) for men and women 51 and older, 1,000 milligrams a day for adults 19 through 50, and 1,300 milligrams a day for children 9 through 18. The upper limit for calcium intake is 2.5 grams daily.

Calcium deficiency

A low level of calcium in the blood (hypocalcemia) can make the nervous system highly irritable causing tetany (spasms of the hands and feet, muscle cramps, abdominal cramps, and overly active reflexes). Chronic calcium deficiency contributes to poor mineralization of bones, soft bones (osteomalacia) and osteoporosis, and, in children, rickets and impaired growth.

Cancer

Abnormal growth of cells tends to proliferate in an uncontrolled way and, in some cases, metastasize (spread).

Carbohydrates

Mainly sugars and starches, together constituting one of the three principal types of nutrients used as energy sources (calories) by the body. Carbohydrates can also be defined chemically as neutral compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Cardiac

Having to do with the heart.

Cardiovascular

The circulatory system comprising the heart and blood vessels which carry nutrients and oxygen to the tissues of the body and removes carbon dioxide and other wastes from them.

Cardiovascular disease

A disease affecting the heart or blood vessels.

Carotenoid

One of a group of compounds that includes beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin which are converted to vitamin A and are referred to as provitamin A carotenoids. The sole known role of carotenoids is to act as a source of vitamin A in the diet. Fruits and vegetables are the main sources of carotenoids in the human diet.

Celiac disease

A disorder resulting from an immune reaction to gluten, a protein found in wheat and related grains, and present in many foods. Celiac disease causes impaired absorption and digestion of nutrients through the small intestine. Symptoms include frequent diarrhea and weight loss. A skin condition dermatitis herpetiformis can be associated with celiac disease. The most accurate test for celiac disease is a biopsy of the involved small bowel. Treatment is to avoid gluten in the diet. Medications are used for refractory (stubborn) celiac disease.

Cell

The basic structural and functional unit in people and all living things. Each cell is a small container of chemicals and water wrapped in a membrane.

Cerebral

Pertaining to the brain, the cerebrum, or the intellect.

Cholecalciferol

Vitamin D3.

Cholesterol

The most common type of steroid in the body, cholesterol has gotten something of a bad name. However, cholesterol is a critically important molecule.

Chronic

This important term in medicine comes from the Greek Chronos, time and means lasting a long time.

Clinical trials

Trials to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of medications or medical devices by monitoring their effects on large groups of people.

Cod liver oil

An oil extracted from the liver of the cod. Cod liver oil was once given religiously to children every day as a rich source of vitamins A and D. It was also used to treat children with rickets, a bone disease due to vitamin D deficiency.

Colitis

Inflammation of the large intestine (the colon). There are many forms of colitis, including ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, infectious, pseudomembranous, and spastic. For example, intermittent rectal bleeding, crampy abdominal pain, and diarrhea can be symptoms of ulcerative colitis. Diagnosis can be made by barium enema, but direct visualization (sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy) is the most accurate test. Long-standing ulcerative colitis increases the risk for colon cancer. Ulcerative colitis can also be associated with inflammation in joints, spine, skin, eyes, the liver, and its bile ducts. Treatment of ulcerative colitis can involve medications and surgery.

Collagen

Collagen is the principal protein of the skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and connective tissue.

Constipation

Infrequent (and frequently incomplete) bowel movements. The opposite of diarrhea, constipation is commonly caused by irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulosis, and medications (constipation can paradoxically be caused by overuse of laxatives). Colon cancer can narrow the colon and thereby cause constipation. The large bowel (colon) can be visualized by barium enema x-rays, sigmoidoscopy, and colonoscopy. Barring a condition such as cancer, high-fiber diets can frequently relieve constipation.

Corneal

Pertaining to the cornea, the clear front window of the eye transmits and focuses light into the eye.

Crohn’s disease

A chronic inflammatory disease, primarily involving the small and large intestine, but which can affect other parts of the digestive system as well. It is named for Burrill Crohn, the American gastroenterologist who first described the disease in 1932.

Cystic fibrosis

One of the most common grave genetic (inherited) diseases, CF affects the exocrine glands and is characterized by the production of abnormal secretions, leading to mucous build-up.

Dementia

Significant loss of intellectual abilities such as memory capacity, severe enough to interfere with social or occupational functioning.

Dentin

Dentin is the hard tissue of the tooth surrounding the central core of nerves and blood vessels (pulp).

Depression

An illness that involves the body, mood, and thoughts, affects the way a person eats and sleeps, the way one feels about oneself, and the way one thinks about things. A depressive disorder is not the same as a passing blue mood. It is not a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be wished away. People with a depressive disease cannot merely “pull themselves together” and get better. Without treatment, symptoms can last for weeks, months, or years. Appropriate treatment, however, can help most people with depression.

Dermatitis

Inflammation of the skin, either due to direct contact with an irritating substance or to an allergic reaction. Symptoms of dermatitis include redness, itching, and in some cases blistering.

Diabetes

Refers to diabetes mellitus or, less often, to diabetes insipidus. Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus share the name “diabetes” because they are both conditions characterized by excessive urination (polyuria).

Diabetes mellitus

Better known just as “diabetes” — a chronic disease associated with abnormally high levels of sugar glucose in the blood. Diabetes is due to one of two mechanisms:
(1) Inadequate production of insulin (which is made by the pancreas and lowers blood glucose) or
(2) Inadequate sensitivity of cells to the action of insulin.

The two main types of diabetes correspond to these two mechanisms and are called insulin-dependent (type 1) and non-insulin-dependent (type 2) diabetes. In type 1 diabetes there is no insulin or not enough of it. In type 2 diabetes, there is generally enough insulin but the cells upon it should act are not normally sensitive to its action.

Dialysis

The process of cleansing the blood by passing it through a special machine. Dialysis is necessary when the kidneys are not able to filter the blood. Dialysis allows patients with kidney failure a chance to live productive lives. There are two types of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Each type of dialysis has advantages and disadvantages. Patients can often choose the type of long-term dialysis that best matches their needs.

Diarrhea

A familiar phenomenon with unusually frequent or unusually liquid bowel movements, excessive watery evacuations of fecal material. The opposite of constipation. The word “diarrhea” with its odd spelling is a near steal from the Greek “diarrhoia” meaning “a flowing through.” Plato and Aristotle may have had diarrhoia while today we have diarrhea. There are myriad infectious and noninfectious causes of diarrhea.

Digestive system

The organs that are responsible for getting food into and out of the body and for making use of it. These organs include the salivary glands, the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, colon, rectum, and anus.

Dermatitis

A scaly rash on skin exposed to light or trauma;

Dementia

Mental disorientation, delusions and depression; and
Death.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid. One of two types of molecules encode genetic information. (The other is RNA. In humans DNA is the genetic material; RNA is transcribed from it. In some other organisms, RNA is the genetic material and, in reverse fashion, the DNA is transcribed from it.)

Dry eye

A deficiency of tears. The main symptom is usually a scratchy or sandy feeling as if something is in the eye. Other symptoms may include stinging or burning of the eye; episodes of excess tearing that follow periods of very dry sensation; a stringy discharge from the eye; and pain and redness of the eye. Sometimes people with dry eye experience heaviness of the eyelids or blurred, changing, or decreased vision, although the loss of vision is uncommon.

Dysfunction

Difficult function or abnormal function.

Enzyme

A protein (or protein-based molecule) that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living organism. An enzyme acts as a catalyst for specific chemical reactions, converting a specific set of reactants (called substrates) into specific products. Without enzymes, life as we know it would not exist.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as a catalyst in mediating and speeding a specific chemical reaction.

Essential

1. Something that cannot be done without. 2. Required in the diet, because the body cannot make it. As in an essential amino acid or an essential fatty acid. 3. Idiopathic. As in essential hypertension. “Essential” is a hallowed term meaning “We don’t know the cause.”

Excess iron

Iron overload can damage the heart, liver, gonads, and other organs.

Fatigue

A condition characterized by a lessened capacity for work and reduced efficiency of accomplishment, usually accompanied by a feeling of weariness and tiredness. Fatigue can be acute and come on suddenly or chronic and persist.

Fats

Plural of the word “fat”.

Fatty acids

Molecules are long chains of lipid-carboxylic acid found in fats and oils and in cell membranes as a component of phospholipids and glycolipids. (Carboxylic acid is an organic acid containing the functional group -COOH.)

Flora

The population of microbes inhabiting the outside or inside surfaces of people (or other animals). Also, the population of plants including flowers, usually in a particular area.

Folate

Folic acid, one of the B vitamins that is a key factor in the synthesis (the making) of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA).

Folic acid

One of the B vitamins is a key factor in the synthesis (the making) of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA).

Food and Drug Administration

The FDA, an agency within the U.S. Public Health Service, which is a part of the Department of Health and Human Services.

Gastritis

Inflammation of the stomach. From the Latin gastricus meaning stomach + -itis, meaning inflammation.

Genetic

Having to do with genes and genetic information.

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity. Genetics pertains to humans and all other organisms. So, for example, there is human genetics, mouse genetics, fruit fly genetics, etc.

Germ

1. A cell or group of cells (called a primordium) capable of developing into an organ, a part of an organism in its entirety. Eggs and sperm are germ cells.

2. A pathogenic microorganism. A microbe capable of causing disease. The germ theory of disease held, correctly, that these minute bodies can cause disease.

3. The figurative source or wellspring. Dr. Watson told Holmes he had the germ of an idea.

Gingivitis

Gum disease with inflammation of the gums. On inspection, the gums will appear red and puffy, and will usually bleed during tooth-brushing or dental examination. Treatment is by improved cleaning, with more frequent and longer brushing and flossing, and/or the use of electronic tooth-cleaning equipment. Antiseptic mouthwashes may also be recommended. See also acute membranous gingivitis, gum disease.

Glossitis

Inflammation of the tongue.

Gout

A condition characterized by abnormally elevated levels of uric acid in the blood, recurring attacks of joint inflammation (arthritis), deposits of hard lumps of uric acid in and around the joints, and decreased kidney function and kidney stones. Uric acid is a breakdown product of purines, that are part of many foods we eat. The tendency to develop gout and elevated blood uric acid level (hyperuricemia) is often inherited and can be promoted by obesity, weight gain, alcohol intake, high blood pressure, abnormal kidney function, and drugs. The most reliable diagnostic test for gout is the identification of crystals in joints, body fluids, and tissues.

Headache

Pain in the head with the pain being above the eyes or the ears, behind the head (occipital), or in the back of the upper neck. Headache, like chest pain or backache, has many causes.

Heart

The muscle that pumps blood received from veins into arteries throughout the body. It is positioned in the chest behind the sternum (breastbone; in front of the trachea, esophagus, and aorta; and above the diaphragm muscle that separates the chest and abdominal cavities. The normal heart is about the size of a closed fist and weighs about 10.5 ounces. It is cone-shaped, with the point of the cone pointing down to the left. Two-thirds of the heart lies in the left side of the chest with the balance in the right chest.

Heart disease

Any disorder that affects the heart. Sometimes the term “heart disease” is used narrowly and incorrectly as a synonym for coronary artery disease. Heart disease is synonymous with cardiac disease but not with cardiovascular disease which is any disease of the heart or blood vessels. Among the many types of heart disease, see, for example, Angina; Arrhythmia; Congenital heart disease; Coronary artery disease (CAD); Dilated cardiomyopathy; Heart attack (myocardial infarction); Heart failure; Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; Mitral regurgitation; Mitral valve prolapse; and Pulmonary stenosis.

Hemoglobin

The oxygen-carrying pigment and predominant protein in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin forms an unstable, reversible bond with oxygen. In its oxygenated state it is called oxyhemoglobin and is bright red. In the reduced state, it is called deoxyhemoglobin and is purple-blue.

Hemolysis

The destruction of red blood cells leads to the release of hemoglobin from within the red blood cells into the blood plasma.

Hemolytic

Referring to hemolysis, the destruction of red blood cells leads to the release of hemoglobin from within the red blood cells into the blood plasma.

Hemolytic anemia

Anemia due to the destruction (rather than underproduction) of red blood cells. Hepatic: Having to do with the liver. Pronounced hi-‘pa-tik. The Latin hepaticus derived from the Greek hepar meaning (not too surprisingly) the liver.

Homeopathy

A system of medicine founded in the late 18th century in which remedies consist of diluted substances from plants, minerals, and animals. It is based on a theory that “like cures like.” Remedies specifically match different symptom pattern profiles of illness to stimulate the body’s natural healing process.

Homocysteine

An amino acid produced by the body, usually as a byproduct of consuming meat. Homocysteine is made from another amino acid, methionine, and then in turn is converted into other amino acids.

Hormone

A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs.

Hypercalcemia

A higher-than-normal level of calcium in the blood. This can cause a number of nonspecific symptoms, including loss of appetite, nausea, thirst, fatigue, muscle weakness, restlessness, and confusion. Excessive intake of calcium may cause muscle weakness and constipation, affect the conduction of electrical impulses in the heart (heart block) lead to calcium stones (nephrocalcinosis), in the urinary tract, impair kidney function, and interfere with the absorption of iron predisposing to iron deficiency. According to the National Academy of Sciences, an adequate intake of calcium is 1 gram daily for both men and women. The upper limit for calcium intake is 2.5 grams daily.

Hypertension

High blood pressure, defined as a repeatedly elevated blood pressure exceeding 140 over 90 mmHg — a systolic pressure above 140 with a diastolic pressure above 90. Immune: Protected against infection. The Latin immunis means free, exempt.

Immune response

Any reaction by the immune system.

Immune system

A complex system that is responsible for distinguishing us from everything foreign to us, and for protecting us against infections and foreign substances. The immune system works to seek and kill invaders.

Incidence

The frequency with which something, such as a disease, appears in a particular population or area. In disease epidemiology, the incidence is the number of newly diagnosed cases during a specific time period. The incidence is distinct from the prevalence which refers to the number of cases alive on a certain date.

Infection

The growth of a parasitic organism within the body. (A parasitic organism is one that lives on or in another organism and draws its nourishment therefrom.) A person with an infection has another organism (a “germ”) growing within him, drawing its nourishment from the person.

Inflammation

A basic way in which the body reacts to infection, irritation, or other injuries, the key features being redness, warmth, swelling, and pain. Inflammation is now recognized as a type of nonspecific immune response.

Inflammatory bowel disease

A group of chronic intestinal diseases characterized by inflammation of the bowel — the large or small intestine. The most common types of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease.

Indigenous or Tribal Medicine

A healthcare system that tends to incorporate various methods of botanical and animal medicines as well as specific ceremonial rituals of the culture to cure disease. The medicinal knowledge is passed from generation to generation primarily through oral traditions. The system tends to be unique to each tribe.

Institute of Medicine

One of the National Academies of the United States. The Institute of Medicine conducts policy studies on health issues.

Intervention

The act of intervening, interfering, or interceding with the intent of modifying the outcome. In medicine, an intervention is usually undertaken to help treat or cure a condition. For example, early intervention may help children with autism to speak. “Acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention is widely practiced in the United States,” according to the National Institutes of Health. From the Latin intervenire, to come between.

Intrinsic

1. An essential or inherent part of something such as a structure.

2. Coming from within, from the inside. Proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell. From the Latin intrinsecus meaning situated on the inside. The opposite of intrinsic is extrinsic.

Iron

An essential mineral. Iron is necessary for the transport of oxygen (via hemoglobin in red blood cells) and for oxidation by cells (via cytochrome). Deficiency of iron is a common cause of anemia. Food sources of iron include meat, poultry, eggs, vegetables and cereals (especially those fortified with iron). According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Recommended Dietary Allowances of iron are 15 milligrams per day for women and 10 milligrams per day for men. Iron overload can damage the heart, liver, gonads, and other organs. Iron overload is a particular risk in people who may have certain genetic conditions (hemochromatosis) sometimes without knowing it and also in people receiving recurrent blood transfusions. Iron supplements meant for adults (such as pregnant women) are a major cause of poisoning in children.

Itching

An uncomfortable sensation in the skin that feels as if something is crawling on the skin or in the skin, and makes the person want to scratch the affected area.

Jaundice

Yellow staining of the skin and sclerae (the whites of the eyes) by abnormally high blood levels of the bile pigment bilirubin. The yellowing extends to other tissues and body fluids. Jaundice was once called the “morbus regius” (the regal disease) in the belief that only the touch of a king could cure it.

Kidney

One of a pair of organs located in the right and left side of the abdomen clear “poisons” from the blood, regulate acid concentration and maintain water balance in the body by excreting urine. The kidneys are part of the urinary tract. The urine then passes through connecting tubes called “ureters” into the bladder. The bladder stores the urine until it is released during urination.

Lactation

The process of milk production. Human milk is secreted by the mammary glands, which are located within the fatty tissue of the breast. The hormone oxytocin is produced in response to the birth of a new baby, and it both stimulates uterine contractions and begins the lactation process. For the first few hours of nursing, a special fluid called colostrum is delivered, which is especially high in nutrients, fats, and antibodies to protect the newborn from infection. Thereafter the amount of milk produced is controlled primarily by the hormone prolactin, which is produced in response to the length of time the infant nurses at the breast.

Lactose

Sugar found in milk. Lactose is a large sugar molecule that is made up of two smaller sugar molecules, glucose, and galactose. In order for lactose to be absorbed from the intestine and into the body, it must first be split into glucose and galactose. The glucose and galactose are then absorbed by the cells lining the small intestine. The enzyme that splits lactose into glucose and galactose is called lactase, and it is located on the surface of the cells lining the small intestine.

Lactose intolerance

Inability to digest lactose, a component of milk and most other dairy products. Lactose is sometimes also used as an ingredient in other foods, so those with a lactase deficiency should check labels carefully.

Levothyroxine

A synthetic thyroid hormone used as a thyroid hormone replacement drug (brand names include Eltroxin, Levothroid, Levoxine, Levoxyl, Synthroid) used to treat an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism). Because not all brands of levothyroxine sodium are equivalent, it is important not to switch between brand names or even between generic formulations.

Liver

An organ in the upper abdomen that aids in digestion and removes waste products and worn-out cells from the blood. The liver is the largest solid organ in the body. The liver weighs about three and a half pounds (1.6 kilograms). It measures about 8 inches (20 cm) horizontally (across) and 6.5 inches (17 cm) vertically (down) and is 4.5 inches (12 cm) thick.

Liver disease

Liver disease refers to any disorder of the liver. The liver is a large organ in the upper right abdomen that aids in digestion and removes waste products from the blood.

Loin

The portion of the lower back from just below the rib cage to the pelvis. The loins include the psoas muscles which are very powerful muscles in the lower back.

Lung cancer

Cancer of the major organ of respiration – the lung. Lung cancer kills more men and women than any other form of cancer. Since the majority of lung cancer is diagnosed at a relatively late stage, only 10% of all lung cancer patients are ultimately cured. Eight out of 10 lung cancers are due to tobacco smoke. Lung cancers are classified as either small cell or non-small cell cancers. Persistent cough and bloody sputum can be symptoms of lung cancer. Lung cancer can be diagnosed based on examination of sputum, or tissue examination with biopsy using bronchoscopy, needle through the chest wall, or surgical excision.

Macrocytic

1. Any abnormally large cell. The opposite of macrocytic is microcytic (an abnormally small cell).

2. An abnormally large red blood cell. Folic acid deficiency is one cause of macrocytic anemia.

Magnesium

A mineral involved in many processes in the body including nerve signaling, the building of healthy bones, and normal muscle contraction. About 350 enzymes are known to depend on magnesium.

Malabsorption

The impaired absorption by the intestines of nutrients from food. Malabsorption can be specific and involve sugars, fats, proteins, or vitamins. Alternatively, malabsorption can be general and nonspecific.

Melanin

A skin pigment (a substance that gives the skin its color). Dark-skinned people have more melanin than light-skinned people. Melanin also acts as a sunscreen and protects the skin from ultraviolet light.

Memory

1. The ability to recover information about past events or knowledge.

2. The process of recovering information about past events or knowledge.

3. Cognitive reconstruction. The brain engages in a remarkable reshuffling process in an attempt to extract what is general and what is particular about each passing moment.

Metabolism

The whole range of biochemical processes that occur within an organism. Metabolism consists both of anabolism and catabolism (the buildup and breakdown of substances, respectively). The biochemical reactions are known as metabolic pathways and involve enzymes that transform one substance into another substance, either breaking down a substance or building a new chemical substance. The term is commonly used to refer specifically to the breakdown of food and its transformation into energy.

Methotrexate

A drug that acts as an antimetabolite and specifically as a folic acid antagonist that inhibits the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and protein.

Migraine

Usually, periodic attacks of headaches on one or both sides of the head. These may be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, increased sensitivity of the eyes to light (photophobia), increased sensitivity to sound (phonophobia), dizziness, blurred vision, cognitive disturbances, and other symptoms. Some migraines do not include headaches, and migraines may or may not be preceded by an aura.

Mouth

1. The upper opening of the digestive tract, beginning with the lips and containing the teeth, gums, and tongue. Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically in the mouth by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant. Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that digests starch. 2. Any opening or aperture in the body. The mouth in both senses of the word is also called the os, the Latin word for an opening, or mouth. The o in os is pronounced as in hope. The genitive form of os is oris from which comes the word oral.

Muscle

Muscle is the tissue of the body that primarily functions as a source of power. There are three types of muscle in the body. The muscle which is responsible for moving extremities and external areas of the body is called “skeletal muscle.” Heart muscle is called “cardiac muscle.” The muscle that is in the walls of arteries and bowel is called “smooth muscle.”

National Academies

Collectively, the four National Academies of the United States — the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, the Institute of Medicine, and the National Research Council.

Naturopathy

A holistic medical system that treats health conditions by utilizing what is believed to be the body’s innate ability to heal. Naturopathic physicians aid healing processes by incorporating a variety of natural methods based on the patient’s individual needs.

Nausea

Nausea is the urge to vomit. It can be brought by many causes including, systemic illnesses, such as influenza, medications, pain, and inner ear disease. When nausea and/or vomiting are persistent, or when they are accompanied by other severe symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, fever, or bleeding, a physician should be consulted.

Nerve

A bundle of fibers that uses chemical and electrical signals to transmit sensory and motor information from one body part to another.

Neural

Having to do with nerve cells.

Neuropathy

Any and all disease or malfunction of the nerves.

Niacin

Nicotinic acid, one of the B-complex B vitamins. Deficiency of niacin in the diet results in the disease pellagra.

Niacin deficiency

See: Pellagra.

Nicotinic acid

The deficiency of nicotinic acid (also known as niacin), one of the B-complex vitamins, causes pellagra.

Night blindness

Impaired vision in dim light and in the dark, due to impaired function of specific vision cells (namely, the rods) in the retina.

Obese

Well above one’s normal weight. A person has traditionally been considered to be obese if they are more than 20 percent over their ideal weight. That ideal weight must take into account the person’s height, age, sex, and build.

Obesity

The state of being well above one’s normal weight.

Obstruction

Blockage of a passageway. See, for example – Airway obstruction; Intestinal obstruction.

Osteomalacia

Softening of bone, particularly in the sense of bone weakened by demineralization (the loss of mineral) and most notably by the depletion of calcium from bone.

Osteoporosis

Thinning of the bones with reduction in bone mass due to depletion of calcium and bone protein. Osteoporosis predisposes a person to fractures, which are often slow to heal and heal poorly. It is more common in older adults, particularly postmenopausal women; in patients on steroids; and in those who take steroidal drugs. Unchecked osteoporosis can lead to changes in posture, physical abnormality (particularly the form of hunched back known colloquially as “dowager’s hump”), and decreased mobility.

Overweight

The term “overweight” is used in two different ways. In one sense it is a way of saying imprecisely that someone is heavy. The other sense of “overweight” is more precise and designates a state between normal weight and obesity.

Pain

An unpleasant sensation that can range from mild, localized discomfort to agony. Pain has both physical and emotional components. The physical part of pain results from nerve stimulation. Pain may be contained to a discrete area, as in an injury, or it can be more diffuse, as in disorders like fibromyalgia. Pain is mediated by specific nerve fibers that carry the pain impulses to the brain where their conscious appreciation may be modified by many factors.

Pancreatic

Having to do with the pancreas, a spongy, tube-shaped organ about 6 inches long. It is located in the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen. It is connected to the duodenum, the upper end of the small intestine. The narrow end of the pancreas, called the tail, extends to the left side of the body.

Pellagra

A disease due to deficiency of niacin, a B-complex vitamin. Pellagra is the “disease of the four D’s” —

Peritoneal

Having to do with the peritoneum.

Pernicious anemia

A blood disorder caused by inadequate vitamin B12 in the blood. Patients who have this disorder do not produce the substance in the stomach that allows the body to absorb vitamin B12. This substance is called an intrinsic factor (IF).

Pharmacist

A professional who fills prescriptions, and in the case of a compounding pharmacist, makes them. Pharmacists are familiar with medication ingredients, interactions, cautions, and hints.

Phosphate

A form of phosphoric acid. Calcium phosphate makes bones and teeth hard.

Phosphorus

An essential element in the diet and a major component of bone. Phosphorus is also found in the blood, muscles, nerves, and teeth. It is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy source in the body.

Pigmentation

The coloring of the skin, hair, mucous membranes, and retina of the eye.

Placebo-controlled

A term used to describe a method of research in which an inactive substance (a placebo) is given to one group of participants, while the treatment (usually a drug or vaccine) being tested is given to another group. The results obtained in the two groups are then compared to see if the investigational treatment is more effective than the placebo.

Pregnancy

The state of carrying a developing embryo or fetus within the female body. This condition can be indicated by positive results on an over-the-counter urine test, and confirmed through a blood test, ultrasound, detection of a fetal heartbeat, or an X-ray. Pregnancy lasts for about nine months, measured from the date of the woman’s last menstrual period (LMP). It is conventionally divided into three trimesters, each roughly three months long.

Pregnant

The state of carrying a developing fetus within the body.

Progressive

Increasing in scope or severity. Advancing. Going forward. In medicine, a disease that is progressive is going from bad to worse.

Prospective

Looking forward. A prospective study or a prospective clinical trial is one in which the participants are identified and then followed forward in time.

Prostate

A gland within the male reproductive system is located just below the bladder. Chestnut-shaped, the prostate surrounds the beginning of the urethra, the canal that empties the bladder.

Prostate cancer

An uncontrolled (malignant) growth of cells in the prostate gland is located at the base of the urinary bladder and is responsible for helping control urination as well as forming part of the semen. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of death of males in the U.S.

Protein

A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for the protein.

Proteins

Large molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for the protein.

Psychosis

In the general sense, a mental illness that markedly interferes with a person’s capacity to meet life’s everyday demands. In a specific sense, it refers to a thought disorder in which reality testing is grossly impaired.

Pyridoxine

One of the vitamin B6 group (which also includes pyridoxal and pyridoxamine) is transformed in the body to pyridoxal phosphate, which functions as a coenzyme, a substance that enhances the action of an enzyme and thereby helps catalyze and speed a biochemical reaction. (A number of vitamins serve as coenzymes.)

Randomized

The use of chance alone to assign the participants in an experiment or trial to different groups in order to fairly compare the outcomes with different treatments. Randomization is an important feature of an experimental design.

Rash

Breaking out (eruption) of the skin. Medically, a rash is referred to as an exanthem.

RDA

Abbreviation for the Recommended Dietary Allowance. Or, popularly, the Recommended Daily Allowance.

Receptor

1. In cell biology, a structure on the surface of a cell (or inside a cell) that selectively receives and binds a specific substance. There are many receptors. There is a receptor for (insulin; there is a receptor for low-density lipoproteins (LDL); etc. To take an example, the receptor for substance P, a molecule that acts as a messenger for the sensation of pain, is a unique harbor on the cell surface where substance P docks. Without this receptor, substance P cannot dock and cannot deliver its message of pain. Variant forms of nuclear hormone receptors mediate processes such as cholesterol metabolism and fatty acid production. Some hormone receptors are implicated in diseases such as diabetes and certain types of cancer. A receptor called PXR appears to jump-start the body’s response to unfamiliar chemicals and may be involved in drug-drug interactions.

2. In neurology, a terminal of a sensory nerve receives and responds to stimuli.

Recommended Dietary Allowance

The RDA, the estimated amount of a nutrient (or calories) per day considered necessary for the maintenance of good health by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council/ National Academy of Sciences. The RDA is updated periodically to reflect new knowledge. It is popularly called the Recommended Daily Allowance.

Red blood cell

The blood cell carries oxygen. Red cells contain hemoglobin and it is the hemoglobin that permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon dioxide). Hemoglobin, aside from being a transport molecule, is a pigment. It gives the cell its red color (and name).

Red blood cells

The blood cells carry oxygen. Red cells contain hemoglobin and it is the hemoglobin that permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon dioxide). Hemoglobin, aside from being a transport molecule, is a pigment. It gives the cells their red color (and their name).

Regional enteritis

Crohn’s disease, a chronic inflammatory disease of the intestine primarily in the small and large intestines but which can occur anywhere in the digestive system between the mouth and the anus.

Resection

Surgical removal of part of an organ.

Respiratory

Having to do with respiration, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. From the Latin re- (again) + spirare (to breathe) = to breathe again.

Retina

The retina is the nerve layer that lines the back of the eye, senses light, and creates impulses that travel through the optic nerve to the brain. There is a small area, called the macula, in the retina that contains special light-sensitive cells. The macula allows us to see fine details clearly.

Retinol

Retinol is vitamin A. Carotene compounds (found, for example, in egg yolk, butter, and cream) are gradually converted by the body to vitamin A (retinol). A form of vitamin A called retinal is responsible for transmitting light sensation in the retina of the eye. Deficiency of vitamin A leads to night blindness.

Rickets

A disease of infants and children that disturbs normal bone formation (ossification). Rickets is a failure to mineralize bone. This softens bone (producing osteomalacia) and permits marked bending and distortion of bones. Up through the first third of the 20th century, rickets was largely due to lack of direct exposure to sunlight or lack of vitamin D. Sunlight provides the necessary ultraviolet rays. These rays do not pass through ordinary window glass. Once the role of vitamin D in rickets was discovered, cod liver oil (which is rich in vitamin D) became a favored, if not too tasty, remedy. Thanks to such supplements of vitamin D, nutritional rickets has become relatively rare in industrialized nations. It still occurs, for example, in breastfed babies whose mothers are underexposed to sunlight and in dark-skinned babies who are not given vitamin D supplements. And in unindustrialized countries, vitamin D deficiency rickets continues to be a problem. Rickets in North America and Europe now is usually not nutritional.

RNA

Short for ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid molecule similar to DNA but containing ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA is formed upon a DNA template. There are several classes of RNA molecules.

Scurvy

A disorder caused by lack of vitamin C. Symptoms includes anemia; soft, bleeding gums; and bumps under the skin near muscles. Scurvy in early childhood can cause musculoskeletal problems. Treatment is by including foods high in vitamin C in the diet, and by vitamin C supplements if needed.

Sensitivity

1. In psychology, the quality of being sensitive. As, for example, sensitivity training, training in small groups to develop a sensitive awareness and understanding of oneself and of one’s relationships with others.

2. In disease epidemiology, the ability of a system to detect epidemics and other changes in disease occurrence.

3. In screening for a disease, the proportion of persons with the disease who are correctly identified by a screening test.

4. In the definition of a disease, the proportion of persons with the disease who are correctly identified by defined criteria.

Sensory

Relating to sensation, to the perception of a stimulus and the voyage made by incoming (afferent) nerve impulses from the sense organs to the nerve centers.

Serotonin

A hormone, also called 5-hydroxytryptamine, in the pineal gland, blood platelets, the digestive tract, and the brain. Serotonin acts both as a chemical messenger that transmits nerve signals between nerve cells and that causes blood vessels to narrow.

Skeletal

Pertaining to the skeleton, the bones of the body collectively provide the framework for the body.

SPF (sun protection factor)

A number on a scale for rating the degree of protection provided by sunscreens. SPF stands for Sun Protection Factor.

Stage

As regards cancer, the extent of cancer, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.

Stomach

1. The sac-shaped digestive organ is located in the upper abdomen, under the ribs. The upper part of the stomach connects to the esophagus, and the lower part leads into the small intestine.

Substance

1. Material with particular features, as a pressor substance.

2. The material that makes up an organ or structure. Also known in medicine as the substantia.

3. A psychoactive drug as, for example, in substance abuse.

Sunscreen

A substance that blocks the effect of the sun’s harmful rays. Using lotions that contain sunscreens can reduce the risk of skin cancer, including melanoma.

Syndrome

A set of signs and symptoms that tend to occur together and which reflect the presence of a particular disease or an increased chance of developing a particular disease.

Synthesis

Putting together different entities to make a whole that is new and different. In biochemistry, synthesis refers specifically to the process of building compounds from more elementary substances by means of one or more chemical reactions.

Tablespoon

An old-fashioned but convenient household measure of capacity. A tablespoon holds about 3 teaspoons, each containing about 5 cc, so a tablespoon = about 15 cc of fluid.

Teaspoon

An old-fashioned but convenient household measure. A teaspoon holds about 5 cc of liquid.

Tetracycline

A family of broad-spectrum antibiotics are effective against a remarkably wide variety of organisms. Bacteria susceptible to teracycline include H. flu (Hemophilus influenzae), strep (Streptococcus pneumoniae), Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (the cause of gonorrhea). Tetracycline is also used to treat nongonococcal urethritis (due to Ureaplasma), Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus, chancroid, cholera, brucellosis, anthrax, and syphilis. It is used in combination with other medications to treat Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria associated with ulcers of the stomach and duodenum.

Thiamine

Vitamin B1. Thiamine (vitamin B1) acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of the body. Deficiency of thiamine leads to beriberi, a syndrome characterized by inflammation of multiple nerves (polyneuritis), heart disease (cardiopathy), and edema (swelling).

Throat

The throat is the anterior (front) portion of the neck beginning at the back of the mouth, consisting anatomically of the pharynx and larynx. The throat contains the trachea and a portion of the esophagus.

Tired

A feeling of a lessened capacity for work and reduced efficiency of accomplishment, usually accompanied by a sense of weariness and fatigue.

Tongue

The tongue is a strong muscle anchored to the floor of the mouth. It is covered by the lingual membrane which has special areas to detect tastes.

Toxicity

The degree to which a substance can harm humans or animals.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

A 3,000-year-old holistic system of medicine combining the use of medicinal herbs, acupuncture, food therapy, massage, and therapeutic exercise. Chinese physicians look for the underlying causes of imbalance in the “yin” and “yang” which lead to disharmony in the “qi” energy in the body. Traditional Chinese Medicine addresses how illness manifests itself in a patient and treats the patient, not the ailment or disease.

Ulcerative colitis

A relatively common disease that causes inflammation of the large intestine (the colon). The cause is unknown.

Urinary

Having to do with the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. The urinary system represents the functional and anatomic aspects of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder.

Urine

Liquid waste. The urine is a clear, transparent fluid. It normally has an amber color. The average amount of urine excreted in 24 hours is from 40 to 60 ounces (about 1,200 cubic centimeters). Chemically, the urine is mainly an aqueous (watery) solution of salt (sodium chloride) and substances called urea and uric acid. Normally, it contains about 960 parts of water to 40 parts of solid matter. Abnormally, it may contain sugar (in diabetes), albumen (a protein) (as in some forms of kidney disease), bile pigments (as in jaundice), or abnormal quantities of one or another of its normal components.

USDA

US Department of Agriculture.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is retinol. Carotene compounds (found, for example, in egg yolk, butter, and cream) are gradually converted by the body to vitamin A (retinol). A form of vitamin A called retinal is responsible for transmitting light sensation in the retina of the eye.

Vitamin A deficiency

A lack of vitamin A.

Vitamin B1

Thiamine. Vitamin B1 (thiamine) acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of the body. The deficiency of thiamine leads to the disease beriberi, a disease affecting the heart and nervous system.

Vitamin B12

A vitamin important for the normal formation of red blood cells and the health of the nerve tissues. Undetected and untreated vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to anemia and permanent nerve and brain damage.

Vitamin B2

An essential nutrient found in meat, dairy foods, plant foods, and grain products. The body requires vitamin B2 to break down food components, maintain tissue, and absorb other nutrients.

Vitamin B3

Vitamin B3 is niacin. Deficiency of niacin causes pellagra.

Vitamin B6

A group of closely related chemical compounds with related names — pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine — that are transformed within the body to yet another form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal phosphate, that acts as a coenzyme. (A number of vitamins serve as coenzymes, substances that enhance the action of enzymes and thereby aid in catalyzing biochemical reactions.)

Vitamin C

An essential nutrient found mainly in fruits and vegetables. The body requires vitamin C to form and maintain bones, blood vessels, and skin.

Vitamin D

Steroid vitamin that promotes the intestinal absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Under normal conditions of sunlight exposure, no dietary supplementation is necessary because sunlight promotes adequate vitamin D synthesis in the skin. Deficiency can lead to bone deformity (rickets) in children and bone weakness (osteomalacia) in adults.

Vitamin D3

A vitamin produced by the body when exposed to ultraviolet light or obtained from dietary sources. Vitamin D3 is a hormone that has an important role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Technically, vitamin D3 is not a vitamin because the body can produce it. Also known as cholecalciferol.

Vitamin E

Alpha-tocopherol, an antioxidant vitamin that binds oxygen-free radicals that can cause tissue damage. Deficiency of vitamin E can lead to anemia. Vitamin E may play a possible role in preventing heart disease and cancer of the lung and prostate.

Vitamin K

One of two naturally occurring fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin K1 and vitamin K2) needed for the clotting of blood because of an essential role in the production of prothrombin (a clotting factor). The term vitamin A may also refer to a synthetic compound that is closely related chemically to the natural vitamins K1 and K2 and has similar biological activity.

Vitamins

The word “vitamin” was coined in 1911 by the Warsaw-born biochemist Casimir Funk (1884-1967). At the Lister Institute in London, Funk isolated a substance that prevented nerve inflammation (neuritis) in chickens raised on a diet deficient in that substance. He named the substance “vitamine” because he believed it was necessary to life and it was a chemical amine. The “e” at the end was later removed when it was recognized that vitamins need not be amines.

Warfarin

An anticoagulant drug (brand names: Coumarin, Panwarfin, Sofarin) taken to prevent the blood from clotting and to treat blood clots and overly thick blood. Warfarin is also used to reduce the risk of clots causing strokes or heart attacks.

Weight loss

Weight loss is a decrease in body weight resulting from either voluntary (diet, exercise) or involuntary (illness) circumstances. Most instances of weight loss arise due to the loss of body fat, but in cases of extreme or severe weight loss, protein and other substances in the body can also be depleted. Examples of involuntary weight loss include the weight loss associated with cancer, malabsorption (such as from chronic diarrheal illnesses ), and chronic inflammation (such as with rheumatoid arthritis).

Yogurt

A common dish made of milk curdled and fermented with a culture of Lactobacillus (the milk bacillus). The word was acquired in the 1620s from Turkey. It can be spelled myriad ways including yogurt, yoghurt, yaghourt, yooghurt, yughard, and yaourt. The most popular spellings in the Anglo-Saxon world are yogurt and yoghurt while in France one eats yaourt.

Zinc

A mineral essential to the body, zinc is a constituent of many enzymes that permit chemical reactions to proceed at normal rates. It is involved in the manufacture of protein (protein synthesis) and in cell division. Zinc is also a constituent of insulin and is concerned with the sense of smell.